Particles
Particles
A particle is a short word that is not a noun, pronoun, adjective, preposition, adverb, or verb. Its function is to mark the type of sentence, the speaker’s attitude toward it, or its relation to another sentence. Most particles are not translated word for word.
Particles are conventionally classified by their position in the sentence:
Proclitic particles (proclitic) — always come first in the sentence or clause.
Enclitic particles (enclitic) — are never first; they usually come after the first word of the sentence.
Interjections and vocative (interjections & vocative) — words that stand alone, such as “O!”, “yes!”, “no!”, and direct address to a person or a god.
The negative particles are discussed in the chapter “Negation”, and the interrogative particles in the chapter “Questions”.
Their position in the sentence:
Example: 
“Look, your donkey
is eating my barley!”
 |
 |
 |
| mk | ḥm | ꜥꜣ=k ḥr wnm jt=j |
| Proclitic particle | Enclitic particle | Rest of the sentence |
The proclitic particle determines the status of the sentence; the enclitic particle attaches after the first word and adds nuance. mk ḥm is possible; ḥm mk is not possible.
An example from each category:
| Hieroglyphs | Transliteration | Category |
|---|---|---|
 | jw | Proclitic particle |
 | grt | Enclitic particle |
 | j | Interjection |
English has no real equivalent. jw is not translated at all, and mk is sometimes “look” and sometimes nothing. The particle is not a word to be translated but a marker of the status of the whole sentence — and omitting it in translation is not a mistake.
Proclitic Particles
A proclitic particle stands at the head of the sentence and determines its status: a factual statement, an address to the listener, a wish, a result, and so on.
| Hieroglyphs | Transliteration | Meaning | Use |
|---|---|---|---|
 | jw | — | Marks the sentence as a factual statement; opens a main clause. Almost never translated. |
 | mk | “look,” “behold” | Addresses the listener and draws his attention. Agrees with the addressee: mk (masculine), mṯ (feminine), mtn (plural). |
 ,  | jsk, jsṯ | “while,” “and now” | Marks the clause as dependent on the preceding sentence, usually as a description of circumstances. |
 | ḥꜣ | “would that,” “if only” | A wish that may not be fulfilled. |
 | smwn | “perhaps,” “probably” | Indicates that the statement is not certain. |
 | ḫr | “then,” “and then” | An inevitable result of what was said before. |
 | jḫ | “then” | A subsequent action (usually comes before a particular verb form). |
 | kꜣ | “then” | A future result of what was said before (usually comes before a particular verb form). |
 | jn | — | Opens a yes/no question; marks the subject in a participial statement. |
Other proclitic particles mark a subordinate clause: ntt and wnt “that” (noun clause), tj (adverbial clause). They are discussed in the chapter “The Complex Sentence”.
The particles jw and mk:
jw presents the sentence as a factual statement. mk presents it to the listener and asks for his attention; it has no fixed translation: sometimes it is omitted, and sometimes it is translated “indeed,” “behold,” or “look,” depending on the context.
When the subject is a personal pronoun: after jw it appears as a suffix pronoun (jw=j); after mk — as a dependent pronoun (mk wj).
Example:
| Hieroglyphs | Transliteration | English |
|---|---|---|
 | mk wj r gs=k | “Here, I [am at] your side” |
Connective Particle
The particle jw as a connective
We have already met jw as a proclitic particle. Here we will see another of its functions: jw can also connect sentences in a narrative sequence.
Examples:
 |
Hieroglyphs |
|
Transliteration |
| “He went out [and] he heard speech” | English |
|---|---|
| “He left [and] he heard [a] speech” | English |
    |
Hieroglyphs |
|
Transliteration |
| “She hears [and] she sees” | English |
|---|---|
| “She hears [and] she sees” | English |
     |
Hieroglyphs |
|
Transliteration |
| “I am in the house [and] my brother is in the palace” | English |
|---|---|
| “I [am] in [the] house [and] my brother [is] in [the] palace” | English |
   |
Hieroglyphs |
|
Transliteration |
| “He has a house [and] he has a field” | English |
|---|---|
| “He has [a] house [and] he has [a] field” | English |
Wishes and Requests
The particles ḥꜣ, ḥꜣ ꜣ and ḥwj ꜣ (“would that”) open a sentence expressing a wish. They are followed by a prospective sḏm=f or an adverbial sentence. The particle jḫ + prospective is used in a request from a person of higher status to one of lower status, and is sometimes followed by a purpose clause.
Examples (proclitic particle in red):
1. ḥwj ꜣ + adverbial sentence. The wish concerns a state, not an action: the speaker wishes to be somewhere else.
  |
Hieroglyphs |
|
Transliteration |
| “Would that I were there.” | English |
|---|---|
| “If only I were there.” | English |
2. ḥꜣ + sentence of possession. Here too there is no verb: the particle is followed by an adverbial sentence of possession (n=j “to me”), and the wish is that the speaker should have something he lacks.
  |
Hieroglyphs |
|
Transliteration |
| “Would that I had some effective divine image.” | English |
|---|---|
| “If only I had any effective image of [a] god.” | English |
3. jḫ + prospective. A request from a person of higher status to one of lower status. The verb is in the prospective, and here the request is followed by a purpose clause — also in the prospective:
   |
Hieroglyphs |
|
Transliteration |
| “Let this commoner bring the names in writing to His Majesty, so that we may hear them.” | English |
|---|---|
| “May this commoner bring [the] names in writing to His Majesty, so that we may hear them.” | English |
In the last example the two actions are linked: jnt is the prospective of the request, and sḏm=n is a prospective of purpose — “so that.”
Enclitic Particles
An enclitic particle does not open a sentence. It comes after the first word (or after the proclitic particle) and adds nuance to the whole sentence: emphasis, contrast, addition, or a shift to a new topic.
| Hieroglyphs | Transliteration | Meaning | Use |
|---|---|---|---|
 ,  | jr=f, r=f | “so,” “then” | Links the sentence to what was said before. Common after an imperative: sḏm r=k n=j “listen to me!” |
 | ḥm | “and also,” “moreover” | Adds to something said before. |
 | grt | “and now,” “now then” | Opens a new topic or line of thought. |
 | swt | “but” | Contrast with what was said before. |
 | ms | “surely,” “indeed” | Astonishment, reproach, or persuasion. |
 | wnnt | “truly,” “indeed” | Reinforces the statement, especially in a nominal sentence. |
 | tr | “then,” “pray” | In questions only; usually not translated. |
 | js | — | Marks the clause or phrase as subordinate; mainly in the negation n ... js. |
Example: the enclitic particle ḥm comes after the proclitic particle mk:
 |
Hieroglyphs |
| mk ḥm ꜥꜣ=k ḥr wnm jt=j | Transliteration |
| “Look, your donkey is eating my barley!” | English |
|---|---|
| “And look, your donkey [is] eating my barley!” | English |
Interjections and Vocative
An interjection is a word that stands alone and expresses emotion, address, or an answer: “O!”, “yes!”, “no!”. The vocative (Vocative) is a direct address to a person or a god.
Everyday examples:
English: Come here, scribe / O king, hear my words
In Middle Egyptian:
The vocative has no special grammatical form: the name of the addressee stands alone, at the beginning, middle, or end of the sentence. Sometimes it is preceded by an interjection:
| Hieroglyphs | Transliteration | Meaning | Use |
|---|---|---|---|
 | j | “O!” | Before a vocative. |
 | hꜣ | “O!” | Before a vocative, mainly in religious texts and before the name of the deceased. |
 | j.nḏ ḥr | “Hail!” | Always at the head of the sentence, with a second-person suffix pronoun: j.nḏ ḥr=k “hail to you.” |
 | m-bjꜣ | “No!” | Stands alone. |
 | tjw | “Yes!” | Stands alone. |
Examples:
| Hieroglyphs | Transliteration | English |
|---|---|---|
 | j ꜥnḫ.w | “O! Living ones!” |
 | hꜣ Ḥr nb ꜥnḫ.w | “Ho, Horus, Lord [of] all [the] Living!” |
, 